Omega-3 compositions, dosage forms, and methods of use

ABSTRACT

Omega-3 compositions, dosage forms, and methods of use are disclosed herein. The omega-3 compositions and dosage forms disclosed herein may comprise DHA and EPA at a ratio of about 5:2. The omega-3 compositions and dosage forms disclosed herein may comprise re-esterified triglycerides. Methods of treatment using the compositions and dosage forms are also disclosed.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/146,680 filed on May 4, 2016 and titled “OMEGA-3 COMPOSITIONS, DOSAGE FORMS, AND METHODS OF USE”, which is a continuation of International Application No. PCT/US15/34372 filed on Jun. 5, 2015 and titled “OMEGA-3 COMPOSITIONS, DOSAGE FORMS, AND METHODS OF USE” and also claims the benefit of the earlier filing date of both U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/009,145 filed on Jun. 6, 2014 and titled “OMEGA-3 COMPOSITIONS, DOSAGE FORMS, AND METHODS OF USE” and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/019,289 filed on Jun. 30, 2014 and titled “OMEGA-3 COMPOSITIONS, DOSAGE FORMS, AND METHODS OF USE,” the entire contents of these applications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

Embodiments of the invention relate generally to medicinal compositions, and more particularly to omega-3 compositions, dosage forms, and methods of use.

BACKGROUND

Mammals have only a limited ability to synthesize omega-3 fatty acids, and thus generally rely on other sources to obtain 5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and 4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

Omega-3 fatty acids are associated with numerous health benefits, including protection against heart disease. Some studies have identified potential benefits for other conditions as well, including autoimmune diseases, inflammatory bowel disease, and cancer.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a box-and-whisker plot showing changes in blood (plasma) serum triglyceride levels during the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 2 is a bar graph of median non-fasting plasma triglyceride levels as measured at the beginning and at the end of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 3 is a bar graph depicting changes in median plasma non-fasting triglyceride levels as measured at the beginning and at the end of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 4 is a bar graph of median corrected non-fasting plasma triglyceride levels as measured at the beginning and at the end of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 5 is a bar graph depicting changes in median corrected plasma non-fasting triglyceride levels as measured at the beginning and at the end of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 6 is a bar graph providing hazard ratios for all-cause mortality in each experimental arm of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 7 is a box-and-whisker plot of changes in omega-3 index over the course of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 8 is a bar graph depicting the mean omega-3 index for each arm of the study disclosed in Example 1, both before and after treatment.

FIG. 9 is a bar graph depicting changes in omega-3 index over the course of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 10 is the bar graph depicting the mean dose-corrected omega-3 index for each arm of the study disclosed in Example 1, both before and after treatment.

FIG. 11 is a bar graph depicting dose-corrected changes in omega-3 index over the course of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 12 is a scatter plot of the change in triglyceride levels over the course of the study disclosed in Example 1, and the change in omega-3 index observed over the course of the same study.

FIG. 13 is a bar graph depicting mean EPA levels in red blood cells at the beginning and at the conclusion of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 14 is a bar graph depicting mean DHA levels in red blood cells at the beginning and at the conclusion of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 15 is a box-and-whisker plot of the change in heart rate observed over the course of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 16 is a bar graph depicting mean changes in heart rate for each arm of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 17 is a box-and-whisker plot depicting changes in plasma high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol concentration over the course of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 18 is a bar graph depicting mean plasma high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol concentration at the beginning and at the conclusion of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 19 is a bar graph depicting changes in mean plasma high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol concentration over the course of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 20 is a bar graph of mean plasma non-high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol concentration for each arm of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 21 is a bar graph depicting mean plasma total cholesterol levels for each arm of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 22 is a bar graph depicting mean plasma apolipoprotein B concentrations for each arm of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 23 is a bar graph depicting mean changes in plasma apolipoprotein B concentrations over the course of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 24 is a bar graph depicting the ratio of plasma apolipoprotein B to apolipoprotein A for each arm of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 25 is a bar graph depicting the changes in the apolipoprotein B/apolipoprotein A ratio across the course of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 26 is a bar graph depicting the systolic blood pressure in each arm of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 27 is a bar graph depicting the diastolic blood pressure in each arm of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 28 is a bar graph depicting the mean plasma concentration of C-reactive protein in each arm of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 29 is a bar graph depicting the percent change of various measurements and values determined over the course of the study disclosed in Example 1.

FIG. 30 is a chromatogram of oil used in the re-esterified triglyceride arm of the study disclosed in Example 1.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following detailed description of various embodiments is not intended to limit the scope of the present disclosure, but is merely representative of various embodiments. The present disclosure relates to medicinal compositions, and more particularly, to omega-3 compositions, dosage forms, and methods of use.

The term “about,” when used with reference to ratios, amounts, or percentages of one or more elements of a composition, dosage form, or portion thereof, encompasses both the actual ratios, amounts, and percentages of the elements (as measured) and the ratios, amounts, and percentages after correction using standard correction methods (e.g., to compensate for the flame ionization detection response for each component). For example, a marine oil comprising fatty acids, including omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), wherein at least about 50% of the fatty acids are triglycerides (TGs), encompasses marine oils where at least about 50% of the fatty acids, on either a corrected or uncorrected basis, are TGs.

Some compositions disclosed herein comprise a marine oil that comprises fatty acids, including omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). In these compositions, 4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and 5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) comprise at least a portion of the PUFAs, and the ratio of DHA to EPA may be about 3:2 to about 4:1. For example, in some compositions, the ratio of DHA to EPA is about 5:2.

In some compositions, at least about 50% (more particularly about 55-70%) of the fatty acids are triglycerides (TGs). In some embodiments, at least about 55% of the fatty acids are TGs.

In some compositions, about 25% to about 45% of the fatty acids are diglycerides (DGs). In some compositions, about 0% to about 5% of the fatty acids are monoglycerides (MGs). In some compositions, about 5% or less (or, more particularly, about 1% or less) of the fatty acids are ethyl esters. In some compositions, about 60% of the fatty acids are PUFAs. In some compositions, at least about 55% of the fatty acids are omega-3 PUFAs. In some compositions, at least about 50% of the fatty acids are either DHA or EPA.

In some compositions, about 0% to about 35% of the fatty acids are mono-unsaturated fatty acids. In some compositions, about 0% to about 5% of the fatty acids are saturated fatty acids. In some compositions, at least about 80% of the PUFAs are DHA and EPA. In some compositions at least about 15% of the marine oil is derived from cephalopod oil. In some compositions, about 10% to about 25% of the marine oil is derived from cephalopod oil and the remainder is derived from fish oil. In some compositions about 25% to about 50% of the marine oil is derived from cephalopod oil and the remainder is derived from fish oil. In some compositions, at least about 50% of the marine oil is derived from cephalopod oil.

In some compositions, the ratio of DHA to EPA is about 5:2, about 55% to about 70% of the fatty acids are re-esterified triglycerides (rTGs), and about 25% to about 45% of the fatty acids are re-esterified diglycerides (rDGs).

In the embodiments described herein, a portion or all of the triglycerides, diglycerides, and/or monoglycerides may be re-esterified. For example, in some compositions, at least about 50% of the fatty acids are rTGs.

Some dosages forms disclosed herein comprise a marine oil comprising fatty acids, including omega-3 PUFAs, wherein DHA and EPA comprise at least a portion of the PUFAs. In such dosages forms, the amount of DHA may be at least about 450 mg and the amount of EPA may be at least about 150 mg.

In some dosage forms, the ratio of DHA to EPA may be about 3:2 to about 4:1 (e.g., about 5:2).

In some dosage forms, at least about 50% of the fatty acids are triglycerides.

In some dosage forms, at least about 50% of the fatty acids are re-esterified triglycerides.

In some dosage forms, the amount of DHA is about 450 mg to about 700 mg. In some dosage forms, the amount of EPA is about 150 mg to about 300 mg.

In some embodiments, the dosage form is a capsule, such as a liquid-filled capsule, where the liquid is a marine oil disclosed herein.

In some embodiments, the dosage form is a liquid, such as delivered in a 150 milliliter bottle. In such embodiments, the marine oil may be dispersed in a flavored carrier.

In some embodiments, the mass of the dosage form is about 1200 mg to about 1600 mg.

In some dosage forms, at least about 55% of the fatty acids are TGs. In some dosage forms, about 55% to about 70% of the fatty acids are TGs.

In some dosage forms, about 25% to about 45% of the PUFAs are DGs.

In some dosage forms, about 0% to about 5% of the fatty acids are MGs.

In some dosage forms, about 5% or less (e.g., 1% or less) of the fatty acids are ethyl esters. In some dosage forms, less than about 1% of the fatty acids are ethyl esters.

In some dosage forms, at least about 60% of the fatty acids are PUFAs.

In some dosage forms, at least about 55% of the fatty acids are omega-3 PUFAs.

In some dosage forms, at least about 50% of the fatty acids are omega-3 PUFAs.

In some dosage forms, about 0% to about 35% of the fatty acids are mono-unsaturated fatty acids.

In some dosage forms, about 0% to about 5% of the fatty acids are saturated fatty acids.

In some dosage forms, at least about 80% of the PUFAs are DHA and EPA.

In some dosage forms, at least about 15% (e.g., at least about 50%) of the marine oil is derived from cephalopod oil. In some dosage forms, about 10% to about 25% of the marine oil is derived from cephalopod oil and the remainder is derived from fish oil. In some dosage forms, about 25% to about 50% of the marine oil is derived from cephalopod oil and the remainder is derived from fish oil.

The foregoing compositions and dosage forms (and other compositions and dosage forms disclosed herein) may be used in methods of treatment. For example, the present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing the risk of mortality in a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of extending the life of a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) in a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing the risk of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing the risk of cardiac arrest in a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing non-fasting triglyceride levels in a subject's blood comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing fasting triglyceride levels in a subject's blood comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of increasing the omega-3 index in red bloods cells of a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein. Some of such embodiments further comprise identifying a subject with less than an average of about 8% EPA and/or DHA in the red blood cells of the subject.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing the resting heart rate of a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) in a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing non-high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-c) in a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing total cholesterol in a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing apolipoprotein B (Apo-B) in a subject's blood comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing systolic blood pressure in a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of reducing diastolic blood pressure in a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein.

The present disclosure encompasses a method of treating hypertriglyceridemia in a subject comprising administering a composition or dosage form disclosed herein. More particularly, some methods of treating hypertriglyceridemia using a composition or dosage form disclosed herein comprise identifying a subject with hypertriglyceridemia.

In some embodiments of each of the methods of treatment disclosed herein, the dose of DHA is at least about 1800 mg/day (e.g., about 1800 mg/day to about 2400 mg/day). In some such embodiments, the dose of DHA is at least about 1800 mg/day and the dose of EPA is about 700 mg/day to about 1000 mg/day. In some of such embodiments, the dose of DHA is about 900 mg to about 1200 mg, twice a day, and the dose of EPA is about 350 mg to about 500 mg, twice a day.

Some embodiments of each of the methods or treatment disclosed herein may reduce apolipoprotein B (Apo-B) in a subject's blood and increase apolipoprotein A-1 (Apo-A-1) in a subject's blood, thereby decreasing the ratio of Apo-B to Apo-A-1.

Compositions and precursors of compositions disclosed herein may be manufactured by any suitable method. For example, some compositions may be manufactured, at least in part, from crude fish oil or crude cephalopod (e.g., squid) oil. The following methods and/or steps for processing fish and/or squid oil are illustrative, and are not meant to limit the scope of this disclosure.

In some methods, crude squid or fish oil may be deacidified by treatment with one or more bases such as NaOH, thereby reducing oil acidity. More particularly, in some methods, aqueous NaOH is added to the crude fish or squid oil, and the crude oil is then isolated by one or more of aqueous/organic phase separation and distillation. In some methods, after addition of a base, volatile material (e.g., free fatty acid) may be stripped by means of a stripping gas (e.g., steam at a high temperature and low pressure).

In some methods, ethyl esters may be produced from the fish or squid oil by chemical reaction with the deacidified fish or squid oil. For example, the deacidified fish or squid oil may be reacted with ethanol (e.g., through a sodium ethoxide-catalyzed transesterification reaction) to form ethyl esters. Additionally or alternatively, in some embodiments, microbial lipases may be used for such a transesterification reaction.

In some methods, the resulting ethyl esters may then be concentrated by molecular distillation. In some methods, the ethyl esters may additionally or alternatively be concentrated through urea complexation. In some urea complexation procedures, ethyl esters are mixed with an ethanolic solution of urea with moderate heating. The mixture is then allowed to cool, causing the urea to crystallize. Because urea crystallizes into a hexagonal structure with channels of appropriate size to accommodate straight-chain saturated fatty acids, fatty acids with a low degree of unsaturation remain complexed with the urea, while fatty acids with a higher degree of saturation (e.g., DHA and EPA) are separated in the solution and may be isolated by filtration.

A method of processing crude fish or squid oil may comprise re-esterification of ethyl ester fatty acids to produce a re-esterified triglyceride. For example, ethyl esters may be enzymatically converted to triglycerides.

In some methods, fish or squid oil (either in ethyl ester form or as a re-esterified triglyceride) may, at some point, undergo a bleaching process. For example, the oil may be heated (e.g., to approximately 80-85° C.) and mixed with activated bleaching clay and/or activated carbon. The bleaching clay, activated carbon, or other beaching agent may adsorb soaps, sulfur-containing compounds, trace metals, pigments, and/or other components.

In some embodiments, fish or squid oil may be deodorized to remove, inter alia, free fatty acids, aldehydes, and ketones or other compounds or materials. In the absence of such deodorization, the fish oil may have objectionable flavor and/or smell characteristics. In some embodiments, volatile material is stripped by means of a stripping gas (e.g., steam at high temperature and low pressure).

Some compositions disclosed herein comprise a mixture of oils from distinct sources. For example, some compositions or dosage forms may comprise cephalopod oil and/or fish oil. In some embodiments, cephalopod oil may be combined with fish oil. In some circumstances, the oils may be combined in large containers and that will be used to fill smaller containers (e.g., nitrogen-flushed bottles for individual sale to consumers). Further, in some embodiments, antioxidants, flavorings, tocopherol, or other additives may be added prior to sealing the containers for distribution to end users.

It should be understood that for some embodiments only a portion of the processing steps disclosed above may be performed. Additionally, some compositions or dosage forms may not be processed by the methods described above, but by alternative processes known in the art. Also, some compositions or dosage forms may be processed by blending already-purified oils.

Some embodiments of the compositions and dosage forms disclosed herein comprise re-esterified triglycerides (rTGs), including re-esterified EPA and DHA. rTGs may have advantages in therapeutic settings relative to other fatty acids, such as the ethyl ester forms of EPA and DHA. For example, as shown in Example 1 below, the triglyceride levels of a group receiving a composition with re-esterified triglycerides were reduced to a greater extent than the triglyceride levels of a group that received ethyl ester forms of EPA and DHA. Further, the group receiving a composition with re-esterified EPA and DHA had a lower heart rate, a lower hazard ratio, lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure, a higher omega-3 index, increased HDL-c levels, lower non-HDL-c levels, and lower cholesterol levels relative to the group that received ethyl ester forms of EPA and DHA.

Compositions and dosage forms comprising a relatively high ratio of DHA to EPA may have one or more advantages relative to compositions that have a lower ratio of DHA to EPA. For example, as shown in Example 1 below, patients who received about 5:2 DHA:EPA as compared to patients who received about 4:5 DHA:EPA (at comparable total omega-3 PUFA amounts) had reduced triglyceride levels, lower heart rate, decreased blood pressure, and an increased omega-3 index.

Example 1

One hundred and nineteen individuals who had been diagnosed with moderate fasting hypertriglyceridemia (i.e., 150 mg triglyceride per dL of blood plasma (1.7 mM) to 500 mg triglyceride per dL of blood plasma (5.65 mM)) were recruited to investigate the response of such individuals to three different lipophilic combinations over an eight-week period.

The 119 individuals (median age of 64) were randomly assigned to three separate groups in a 1:1:1 ratio. The first group, which is referred to herein as the re-esterified triglyceride (rTG) group, was prescribed 5.5 g of LIPOMAR™ per day (two 1.375 g capsules taken twice per day). The 5.5 g of prescribed LIPOMAR™ included 767 mg EPA and 1930 mg DHA (i.e., 2696 mg of combined EPA and DHA). The oil of the LIPOMAR™ capsules was a blend of refined and re-esterified squid and fish oils. The second group, which is referred to herein that the ethyl ester (EE) group, was prescribed 4.0 g of LOVAZA™ (two 1.0 mg capsules taken twice per day). The 4.0 g of prescribed LOVAZA™ included 1702 mg EPA and 1382 mg DHA in ethyl ester form (i.e., 3085 mg of combined EPA and DHA). The third group, referred to herein as the placebo group, received 4.0 g of olive oil (OO) per day (two 1.0 mg capsules taken twice per day).

At the beginning of the study, each individual's resting heart rate and blood pressure were measured. Additionally, one or more blood samples of each patient was taken and used to assess the concentration and/or ratio of blood components. For example, the patient's blood was tested to determine non-fasting triglyceride levels, cholesterol levels, the omega-3 index of red blood cell membranes, and the concentrations and/or ratios of various proteins and lipoproteins found in the blood. Other tests on the blood plasma were also conducted. Table 1 provides a summary of the characteristics of those in each experimental arm of the study.

TABLE 1 Re-esterified Olive oil Triglyceride Ethyl ester (placebo) General characteristics Number of participants/group N = 39 N = 40 N = 40 Average age 63.3 60.4 63.6 Number of male participants  36 (92.3)¹ 26 (65.0) 32 (80.0) BMI (mean) 29 28 29 Average weight of female (kg) 82.1 71.1 81.8 Range of female weight (kg) 68-98 54-86 55-96 Average weight of male (kg) 93.1 89.8 90.4 Range of male weight (kg)  75-120  71-117  72-118 History (self-declared) Cardiovascular disease 30 (76.9) 30 (75.0) 32 (80.0) Dyslipidæmi 30 (76.9) 35 (87.5) 30 (75.0) Hypertension 22 (56.4) 19 (47.5) 20 (50.0) Diabetes Mellitus Type II  5 (12.8)  6 (15.0)  8 (20.0) Psychiatric disorder 1 (2.6) 2 (5.0) 1 (2.5) Therapy Statin therapy users 30 (76.9) 29 (72.5) 29 (72.5) Ezetemibe users 3 (7.7)  5 (12.5) 2 (5.0) Hypertension therapy users 27 (69.2) 26 (65)   30 (75.0) Psychopharmaca 3 (7.7)  5 (12.5) 2 (5.0) Blood pressure (average) Systolic (mmHg) 145 141 145 Diastolic (mmHg) 84 83 85 Heart rate (average # of beats/min) 67 63 65 Lipid values (average) Cholesterol (mg/dL) 247 240 218 HDL (mg/dL) 40.2 42.9 44.4 Non-HDL (mg/dL) 141.3 146.7 145.9 Triglyceride (mg/dL) 247 240 218 Omega-3 index (%) 6.7 6.4 6.2 ¹Numbers enclosed within parentheses denote the percentage of participants in each group that fall within the relevant category.

After four and eight weeks of treatment, the individuals in each group returned, and the measurements and tests performed at the beginning of the study were repeated. A summary of these results is set forth in the text below, and the tables and figures referenced therein.

FIGS. 1-3 provide graphical depictions of data related to changes in plasma triglyceride levels in each arm of the study. More particularly, FIG. 1 provides a box-and-whisker plot depicting, within each group, changes in blood plasma triglyceride levels between baseline levels measured at the beginning of the study and blood plasma triglyceride levels measured at the conclusion of the study. The box-and-whisker plot shows the median, upper and lower quartile, and maximum and minimum values (excluding outliers). Outlier data are depicted with circles or asterisks.

FIG. 2 provides a bar graph of median non-fasting plasma triglyceride levels (mg/dL) as measured at the beginning of the study (i.e., baseline levels) and at the conclusion of the study. FIG. 3 depicts changes in median non-fasting plasma triglyceride levels (mg/dL) as measured at the beginning of the study relative to median non-fasting plasma triglyceride levels as measured at the conclusion of the study. As depicted in these figures, the median non-fasting triglyceride levels for the rTG arm and the EE arm of the study were lowered from baseline levels (from 2.79±1.12 mM to 1.81±0.82 mM for the rTG arm and from 2.70±1.39 mM to 2.10±1.23 mM for the EE arm), while the median non-fasting triglyceride level for the placebo arm did not decrease (changing from 2.46±1.38 mM to 2.69±1.62 mM).

The decrease in plasma triglyceride levels for the rTG and EE arms relative to baseline levels was statistically significant (p-values<0.001). The decrease in plasma triglyceride levels in both the rTG and EE arms was also statistically significant when compared with the placebo group receiving olive oil (p-values<0.001). Changes in triglyceride levels within the placebo group were not statistically significant (p-value=0.52).

The total amount (by weight) of combined EPA and DHA differs in the two experimental arms of the study. More particularly, the ethyl ester treatment arm (i.e., LOVAZA) receives 14% more combined EPA and DHA by weight than the group receiving re-esterified triglyceride. FIGS. 4 and 5 are analogous to FIGS. 2 and 3, but correct for this difference in total amount of supplied EPA and DHA. As shown in these figures, the decrease in median plasma triglyceride levels for the rTG arm of the study is even more pronounced when the data are corrected to account for the difference in the total amount of combined EPA and DHA by weight.

FIG. 6 is a bar graph providing hazard ratios for all-cause mortality in each experimental arm of the study. The hazard ratios are determined and defined as set forth in Thomsen et al., Low Nonfasting Triglycerides and Reduced All-Cause Mortality: A Mendelian Randomization Study, 60 Clin. Chem 737-46 (2014), which is incorporated herein by reference. The hazard ratio remained constant throughout the study in both the EE group and the placebo group. However, the hazard ratio for those in the rTG group was lowered at the conclusion of the study relative to the hazard ratio at the beginning of the study.

FIGS. 7, 8, and 9 provide graphical depictions of data related to the changes in the omega-3 index of members of the study population. The omega-3 index is defined as the ratio of the combined number of EPA and DHA fatty acids in the measured erythrocyte membranes relative to the total number of all fatty acids (including EPA and DHA) in the measured erythrocyte membranes. The ratio is expressed either as a ratio or a percentage. FIG. 7 provides a box-and-whisker plot of the changes in omega-3 index between baseline levels measured at the beginning of the study and levels measured at the conclusion of the study. The box-and-whisker plot shows the median, upper and lower quartile, and maximum and minimum values (excluding outliers). There were no outliers in the rTG and ethyl ester treatment arms. The four outliers of the control group are depicted with circles and an asterisk in the corresponding box plot. As shown in FIG. 7, the omega-3 index of those in the rTG and EE treatment arms generally increased, while the omega-3 index of those in the placebo (olive oil) group, generally did not change.

FIG. 8 depicts the mean omega-3 index for each arm of the study both before treatment and at the conclusion of the treatment period. FIG. 9 depicts changes in the mean omega-3 index across the course of the study, or stated another way, FIG. 9 depicts the difference between the values shown for each of the three columns in FIG. 8. Thus, for example, as shown in these figures, the mean omega-3 index in the rTG and EE treatment arms increased relative to both the placebo group and to baseline levels within each group. The increase in omega-3 index values in both the rTG and EE treatment arms was statistically significant relative to both the placebo group and baseline values (p-values<0.001). The increase in omega-3 index values for the rTG group relative to the EE group, as depicted in these figures, was not statistically significant. Additionally, changes in the omega-3 index in the placebo group relative to baseline values were not statistically significant.

FIGS. 10 and 11 are analogous to FIGS. 8 and 9, but corrected for the total amount of EPA and DHA. As shown in these figures, the increase in mean omega-3 index values relative to baseline values is even more pronounced when the data are corrected to account for the different in the total amount of combined EPA and DHA (by weight) in treatment arms.

FIG. 12 provides a scatter plot depicting the difference between plasma triglyceride levels (mg/dL) measured at the end of the study from triglyceride levels measured at the beginning of the study (i.e., baseline levels) on the y-axis, and the difference in omega-3 index (i.e., omega-3 index levels at the conclusion of the study minus baseline omega-3 index levels measured at the beginning of the study) on the x-axis. As is evidenced by the negative slope of the best-fit line, this plot shows a negative correlation between these two variables (R² value=0.233)

FIG. 13 provides a bar graph depicting mean EPA levels (mol %) in red blood cells at the beginning of the study and at the conclusion of the study. As depicted in FIG. 13, mean EPA concentrations increased in both the rTG and EE treatment arms across the course of the study, while the mean EPA concentration of the placebo group did not increase. The increase in EPA concentrations for both treatment groups was statistically significant relative to baseline levels (p-value<0.001). The increase in EPA concentration in the EE arm was significantly greater than the increase in EPA concentrations in the rTG group (p-value<0.043). Changes in the placebo group were not statistically significant.

FIG. 14 provides a bar graph depicting mean DHA levels (mol %) in red blood cells before and after treatment. As depicted in FIG. 14, the mean DHA concentrations increased in both the rTG and EE treatment arms across the course of the study, while the mean DHA concentration in the control group did not increase. The increase in DHA concentrations for both treatment groups was statistically significant relative to baseline levels (p-values<0.001). The increase in DHA concentration in the rTG arm was significantly greater than the increase DHA concentration in the EE arm (p-value<0.001). Changes in the olive oil placebo group were not statistically significant.

FIGS. 15 and 16 provide graphical representations of heart rate data collected during the study. More particularly, FIG. 15 provides a box-and-whiskers plot of the changes in heart rate (beats/minute) between a baseline heart rate measured at the beginning of the study and a heart rate measured at the conclusion of the study. The box-and-whisker plot shows the median, upper and lower quartile, and maximum and minimum values (excluding outliers). Outliers are shown as circles or asterisks. As shown in FIG. 15, heart rate levels generally decreased in the rTG group, while heart rates of those in the EE and placebo (olive oil) groups did not decrease.

FIG. 16 is a bar graph depicting mean changes in heart rate (expressed in beats/minute) for each group of the study. The mean heart rate for those in the rTG arm decreased more than 2.5 beats per minute, while no decrease was observed in the EE and placebo groups. The decrease in heart rate in the rTG group was significant relative to both the placebo group (p-value=0.045) and the baseline values prior to treatment (p-value=0.038). Changes in heart rate in the EE and placebo groups relative to baseline values were not statistically significant.

FIGS. 17, 18, and 19 provide graphical representations of plasma high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-c) concentration levels as measured during the study. More particularly, FIG. 17 provides a box-and-whisker plot that depicts, within each group, changes in plasma HDL-c levels (mM) between baseline levels measured at the beginning of the study and levels measured at the conclusion of the study. The box-and-whisker plot shows the median, upper and lower quartile, and maximum and minimum values (excluding outliers). Outliers are depicted with circles or asterisks.

As shown in FIG. 17, HDL-c concentrations in the blood plasma of those in the rTG and ethyl ester group generally increased, while the HDL-c concentrations of those in the placebo group generally did not increase.

FIG. 18 provides a bar graph of mean plasma HDL-c levels for each arm of the study. FIG. 19 is a bar graph depicting the changes in mean HDL-c concentrations within each group across the course of the study. These bar graphs show an increase in mean plasma HDL-c concentrations for those in the rTG and EE treatment arms, while the mean plasma HDL-c concentration for those in the placebo group decreased. The increase in HDL-c concentration within the rTG group was statistically significant relative to both the placebo group (p-value<0.001) and baseline values prior to treatment (p-value<0.001). The increase in HDL-c concentration within the EE group was also statistically significant relative to both the placebo group (p=0.025) and baseline values prior to treatment (p-value=0.026).

FIG. 20 is a bar graph of mean plasma non-HDL-c concentrations (mg/dL) for each arm of the study. This bar graph shows a decrease in mean plasma non-HDL-c concentrations for those in the rTG and EE treatment arms relative to baseline (i.e., pre-treatment) values. The decrease in mean plasma non-HDL-c levels relative to baseline values is statistically significant for both the rTG and EE groups (p-values<0.001). Additionally, the decrease in mean HDL-c concentrations for the rTG group was significant relative to the placebo group (p=0.027), while the decrease in mean HDL-c concentrations for the EE group was not statistically significant relative to the placebo group (p-value=0.064). Changes in non-HDL-c concentration within the placebo group were not statistically significant.

FIG. 21 is a bar graph depicting mean plasma total cholesterol levels (mg/dL) for each arm of the study both at the beginning of the study (i.e., baseline values) and at the conclusion of the study. This bar graphs shows a decrease in mean plasma total cholesterol levels for those in the rTG and EE treatment arms relative to baseline (i.e., pre-treatment) values. The decrease in total cholesterol levels in these groups relative to baseline levels was statistically significant (p-values<0.05). However, neither the decrease in total cholesterol levels between the rTG and EE groups versus the placebo control (olive oil) nor the decrease in cholesterol levels within the placebo group relative to baseline levels was statistically significant. Likewise, the difference in the change in total cholesterol levels within the rTG group relative to the EE group was not statistically significant.

FIGS. 22 and 23 provide graphical depictions of data related to blood plasma apolipoprotein B (Apo-B) concentration levels (mg/dL) in each arm of the study. More particularly, FIG. 22 is a bar graph depicting mean plasma Apo-B concentrations for each arm of at the beginning of the study (i.e., baseline levels) and at the conclusion of the study. FIG. 23 is a bar graph depicting the change in mean Apo-B concentrations in each arm across the study. The decrease in mean Apo-B concentrations shown in these figures was significant in both the rTG and EE groups relative to baseline (i.e., pre-treatment) levels (p-value<0.01). The change in mean Apo-B concentrations found in the rTG and EE groups relative to the olive oil placebo group was not statistically significant. The decrease in Apo-B concentrations found in the olive oil placebo group relative to baseline (i.e., pre-treatment) values was also not statistically significant.

FIGS. 24 and 25 provide graphical depictions of data relating to the relative concentrations of Apo-B and apolipoprotein A (Apo-A) in the blood plasma of those in each arm of the study. More particularly, FIG. 24 is a bar graph depicting the mean ratio of Apo-B to Apo-A in each group, both at the beginning and at the conclusion of the study. FIG. 25 is a bar graph that depicts changes in mean plasma Apo-B/Apo-A concentration across the course of the study. These figures show a decrease in the mean plasma Apo-B/Apo-A ratio for both the rTG and EE groups. The decrease in the mean Apo-B/Apo-A ratio relative to baseline ratios in both the rTG and EE groups was statistically significant, with p-values of 0.003 and 0.008 respectively. The decrease in mean Apo-B/Apo-A ratios for the rTG groups was also statistically significant relative to the placebo group (p-value=0.027). The decrease in mean Apo-B/Apo-A ratios for the EE group was not statistically significant relative to the placebo group (p-value=0.182). Changes to the Apo-B/Apo-A ratio within the placebo group relative to baseline values were not statistically significant.

FIG. 26 is a bar graph depicting the mean systolic blood pressure in each group both at the beginning and at the conclusion of the study. FIG. 27 is a similar bar graph depicting the mean diastolic blood pressure in each group both at the beginning and at the conclusion of the study. The decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure within the rTG and EE groups relative to baseline levels was statistically significant (p-values<0.05). The changes in systolic and diastolic blood pressure in the rTG and EE groups relative to the placebo group (olive oil) were not statistically significant.

FIG. 28 is a bar graph depicting the mean plasma concentrations of C-reactive protein (mg/L) in each arm of the study both at the beginning and at the conclusion of the study. The mean values of C-reactive protein were lowered in both the rTG group and the olive oil placebo group, but increased in the EE group. None of these changes in the rTG and EE groups was significant relative to baseline values or the placebo group.

FIG. 29 is a bar graph depicting the percent change of the following measurements or values, relative to baseline (i.e., pre-treatment) levels: triglyceride concentration, HDL-c concentration, non-HDL-c concentration, the omega-3 index, heart rate, and the ratio of Apo-B to Apo-A.

Table 2 provides statistical data for between-group analyses (i.e., ANOVA-derived p-values) and within-group analyses (i.e., p-values derived from a paired t-test). In addition to the measurements, values, and indexes noted above, the table provides statistical data for changes in levels of alanine transaminase (ALAT), alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin, and HgbA1c. The table also provides statistical data for changes in the clotting tendency of the blood (as measured using the INR test) and the body mass index (BMI) of those in the study.

TABLE 2 Group difference, ANOVA, p-values Individual change, two-tailed Paired t-test rTG vs. EE vs. (post-pre) EE rTG vs. OO OO rTG EE OO Triglyceride 0.785 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.138 Total 0.996 0.213 0.180 0.010 <0.001 0.323 cholesterol HDL 0.088 <0.001 0.025 <0.001 0.026 0.131 cholesterol Non-HDL 0.930 0.027 0.064 0.001 <0.001 0.521 cholesterol Apo-B/A 0.676 0.027 0.182 0.003 0.008 0.917 ratio Apo-A 0.478 0.478 1.000 0.682 0.131 0.277 Apo-B 0.992 0.337 0.274 0.010 0.002 0.395 Heart rate 0.233 0.045 0.717 0.038 0.868 0.070 Diastolic BP 0.947 0.996 0.972 0.006 0.010 0.043 Systolic BP 0.805 0.807 0.420 0.050 0.006 0.258 ALAT 0.379 0.070 0.638 0.009 0.600 0.492 Alkaline 0.837 0.110 0.311 0.003 0.026 0.863 phosphatase Bilirubin 0.964 0.969 0.872 0.919 0.585 0.818 CRP 0.410 0.469 0.994 0.243 0.651 0.739 INR 0.068 0.031 0.999 0.021 0.604 0.239 HgbA1c 0.993 0.563 0.631 0.041 0.227 0.842 BMI 0.827 0.534 0.878 0.303 0.686 0.738 DHA <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.316 EPA 0.043 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.690 O3 index 0.788 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.173

FIG. 30 and Table 3 provide information regarding the fatty acid composition of the oil prescribed to those in the rTG arm of the study. The oil was analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography to generate a fatty acid composition profile and to determine the relative concentrations of fatty acids in the oil. The resulting chromatogram is shown in FIG. 30, and data corresponding to the chromatogram are shown in Table 3. The percentages reported in Table 3 are relative to the total amount of detected fatty acids, and do not necessarily correspond with the total mass of the oil composition. As shown in this figure, the oil comprises a plurality of fatty acid compositions of varying length. The two most prevalent fatty acids in the composition are DHA (peak 29) and EPA (peak 22).

TABLE 3 Saturated Mono- Poly- Omega- FAC unsaturated unsaturated Component Area Corrected 3 Area Area FAC FAC Peak # Time Name [%] Area [%] [%] [%] Area [%] Area [%] 1 6.035 C14:0 0.13 0.1263 0.0000 0.1263 0.0000 0.0000 2 7.336 0.07 3 7.523 C16:0 0.50 0.4839 0.0000 0.4839 0.0000 0.0000 4 7.781 C16:1 n-7 0.31 0.3082 0.0000 0.0000 0.3082 0.0000 5 8.401 0.06 6 8.534 0.08 7 9.918 C18:0 1.19 1.1554 0.0000 1.1554 0.0000 0.0000 8 10.213 C18:1 n-9 3.26 3.1903 0.0000 0.0000 3.1903 0.0000 9 10.323 C18:1 n-7 1.06 1.0641 0.0000 0.0000 1.0641 0.0000 10 10.530 0.11 11 10.949 C18:2 n-6 0.40 0.3998 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.3998 12 12.102 C18:3 n-3 0.20 0.1960 0.1960 0.0000 0.0000 0.1960 13 12.707 C18:4 n-3 0.39 0.3899 0.3899 0.0000 0.0000 0.3899 14 13.554 C20:0 0.35 0.3468 0.0000 0.3468 0.0000 0.0000 15 13.867 C20:1 n-11 6.93 6.9333 0.0000 0.0000 6.9333 0.0000 16 13.957 C20:1 n-9 5.61 5.6066 0.0000 0.0000 5.6066 0.0000 17 14.150 0.65 18 15.014 0.74 19 16.179 C20:4 n-6 1.63 1.6317 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.6317 20 16.590 0.34 21 17.271 C20:4 n-3 1.08 1.0842 1.0842 0.0000 0.0000 1.0842 22 17.871 C20:5 n-3 16.58 16.5818 16.5818 0.0000 0.0000 16.5818 23 18.794 C22:1 n-11 + 10.97 11.0829 0.0000 0.0000 11.0829 0.0000 13 24 18.947 C22:1 n-9 1.50 1.4992 0.0000 0.0000 1.4992 0.0000 25 19.202 0.42 26 20.810 C21:5 n-3 0.90 0.8992 0.8992 0.0000 0.0000 0.8992 27 22.545 C22:5 n-6 0.85 0.8484 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.8484 28 23.666 C22:5 n-3 2.77 2.9399 2.9399 0.0000 0.0000 2.9399 29 24.587 C22:6 n-3 39.63 40.0274 40.0274 0.0000 0.0000 40.0274 30 24.821 C24:1 1.30 1.3788 0.0000 0.0000 1.3788 0.0000

Any methods disclosed herein may include one or more steps or actions for performing the described method. The method steps and/or actions may be interchanged with one another. In other words, unless a specific order of steps or actions is required for proper operation of the embodiment, the order and/or use of specific steps and/or actions may be modified. Moreover, sub routines or only a portion of a method described herein may be a separate method within the scope of this disclosure. Stated otherwise, some methods may include only a portion of the steps described in a more detailed method.

It will be apparent to those having skill in the art that changes may be made to the details of the above-described embodiments without departing from the underlying principles of the present disclosure. 

1. A method of reducing the resting heart rate of a subject, the method comprising: administering a processed marine oil composition comprising fatty acid esters, wherein the fatty acid esters comprise esters of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including re-esterified esters of 4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and re-esterified esters of 5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), wherein a ratio of re-esterified esters of DHA to re-esterified esters of EPA is about 2.5:1 to about 4:1.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein a dose of DHA is at least about 1800 mg/day.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the dose of DHA is about 1800 mg/day to about 2400 mg/day.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein a dose of EPA is about 700 mg/day to about 1000 mg/day.
 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the dose of DHA is about 900 mg to about 1200 mg, twice a day, and the dose of EPA is about 350 mg to about 500 mg, twice a day.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein about 55% to about 70% of the fatty acid esters are re-esterified triglycerides (rTGs).
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein about 25% to about 45% of the fatty acid esters are re-esterified diglycerides (rDGs).
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein about 0 wt % to about 5 wt % of the fatty acid esters are re-esterified monoglycerides (rMGs).
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein about 5 wt % or less of the fatty acid esters are in the form of ethyl esters.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein at least about 60 wt % of the fatty acid esters are esters of PUFAs.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein at least about 15 wt % of the marine oil is derived from cephalopod oil.
 12. A method of increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) in a subject, the method comprising: administering a processed marine oil composition comprising fatty acid esters, wherein the fatty acid esters comprise esters of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including at least about 450 mg of re-esterified esters of 4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z, 19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and at least about 150 mg of re-esterified esters of 5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the ratio of re-esterified esters of DHA to EPA is about 5:2.
 14. The method of claim 12, wherein at least about 50% of the fatty acid esters are re-esterified triglycerides (rTGs).
 15. The method of claim 12, wherein at least about 55% of the fatty acid esters are re-esterified triglycerides (rTGs).
 16. The method of claim 12, wherein about 0 wt % to about 35 wt % of the fatty acid esters are esters of mono-unsaturated fatty acids.
 17. The method of claim 12, wherein about 0 wt % to about 5 wt % of the fatty acid esters are esters of saturated fatty acids.
 18. The method of claim 12, wherein at least about 50 wt % of the fatty acid esters are either re-esterified esters of DHA or re-esterified esters of EPA.
 19. The method of claim 12, wherein at least about 80% of the PUFAs are DHA and EPA.
 20. A method of reducing triglycerides in a subject's blood, the method comprising: administering a processed marine oil composition comprising fatty acid esters, wherein the fatty acid esters comprise esters of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including re-esterified esters of 4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and re-esterified esters of 5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), wherein a ratio of re-esterified esters of DHA to re-esterified esters of EPA is about 2.5:1 to about 4:1. 